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INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
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THE SCIENCE OF LIFE
THEMES
OF BIOLOGY OBJECTIVES: List Six unifying themes of
Biology.
Explain how organisms get the Energy they need to survive.
Describe the
main difference between the structure of a living thing and that of a
nonliving
thing. Scientists estimate
that 40 million Species
of organisms inhabit the Earth. But of these 40 million Species,
only
about 2 million have been identified and named, and only a few thousand
have
been studied in any detail. Thus, much of the world of Biology
remains to
be explored and studied. 1. ALL Living
Things are called
Organisms. The first life form probably arose on Earth
more
than 3.5 BILLION years ago. The first organism was a Single Cell,
too
small to be seen without the aid of a Microscope. 2. The Earth may be
home to as many as 40
million types of organisms. (Species) 3. Many types of
organisms have not yet been
identified, and new types are discovered frequently. 4. Over time Organisms
Change (EVOLUTION).
New kinds of organisms arose from older kinds and came to inhabit
almost every
region of the Earth. 5. Even the most
extreme locations on Earth
contain Life: 6. Each organism is
adapted to the specific
features of its environment. 7. BIOLOGY
- the Science
of Life - is The Study of ALL Living Things. SIX UNIFYING
THEMES OF BIOLOGY 1. Biology is unified
by certain themes,
that come into play No Matter what Organism or What Kind of Interaction
is
studied. The SIX MAJOR THEMES recur throughout Biology: A. Cell Structure and
Function CELL STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION 1. THE CELL IS
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE.
ALL Organisms are made of and develop from Cells. 2. Some organisms are
composed of only ONE
CELL, called UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 3. Most of the Living
Things that we see
around us are MULTICELLULAR, They are composed of MORE
Than One
Cell. 4. Cells are Small but
Highly
Organized. They contain specialized Structures that carry out the
Cell's
Life Processes Called ORGANELLES. 5. There are many
different kinds of cells,
but all cells are similar in several ways - They are all surrounded by
a Cell
Membrane and contain information-in the form of Genetic Information
(DNA)-
necessary for making New Cell Parts, and NEW CELLS. 6. New cells produced
by Unicellular
Organisms are virtually identical (Clones) to the parent organism that
produced
them - ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 7. Multicellular
Organisms also begin their
lives as One Cell (SEXUAL REPRODUCTION), contain not only
Many
Cells but also Many Different Cells. The Cells of Multicellular
organisms
underwent DIFFERENTIATION (JOB). They became
Different from
each other as they multiplied and followed the roles supplied for them
by their
Genetic Instructions (DNA). STABILITY AND
HOMEOSTASIS 1. Living Things, from
single cells to
entire large organisms, Maintain Very Stable Internal Conditions such
as
Temperature, Water Content, and even Food Intake. 2. Maintaining this
Stable Level of INTERNAL
CONDITIONS is called HOMEOSTASIS and is found in all
Living
Things, including single cells. REPRODUCTION AND
INHERITANCE 1. All Organisms
produce new organisms like
themselves in a process called REPRODUCTION, organisms
transmit
hereditary information to their offspring. 2. The Hereditary
Information is in a form
of a large molecule called DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID OR DNA.
3. A short segment of
DNA that contains the
instructions for the development of a SINGLE TRAIT of an organism is
called a GENE. 4. The DNA of a cell
is like a large library
- it contains all the instructions - GENES - that the
cell will
ever need. The DNA of every body cell, even different kinds of
body
cells, is IDENTICAL. Each cells uses CERTAIN GENES from the
complete
set. 5. In SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION,
Hereditary Information from TWO Organisms of the SAME SPECIES
Combine.
From the Female the DNA is contain in the EGG, and in the Male the DNA
is
contain in the SPERM. 6. The Joining of Egg
and Sperm produces a
FERTILIZED EGG CALLED A ZYGOTE, that contains Hereditary
Information from both the Female Parent and the Male Parent. The
New
Organism is composed of cells that contain complete sets of Hereditary
Information from Both its Parents. 7. In ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION,
Hereditary Information from different organisms IS NOT COMBINED.
One Cell Splits in TWO, or One Cell gives rise to TWO NEW CELLS.
Each of the TWO Cells contains an IDENTICAL COPY (Clones) of
the
Hereditary Information (DNA) from the Original Cell. EVOLUTION 1. Populations of
organisms EVOLVE, or
CHANGE over Generations (TIME). The "Theory of
Evolution" helps us to understand how many kinds of organisms that have
lived on Earth came into Existence. 2. Scientist suggest
that a process called NATURAL
SELECTION is the most important driving force in Evolution -
Organisms
that have certain Favorable Traits are Better able to Successfully
Reproduce -
SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. 3. The survival of
organisms with Favorable
Traits causes a gradual Change in populations of organisms over many
generations. Below see the changes over time that gave us the Modern
Day Horse,
this occured over 57 Million Years of Time. INTERDEPENDENCE
OF ORGANISMS 1. Scientist study the
Interactions of
Organisms with one another and with their Environment - This branch of
Biology
is called ECOLOGY. 2. A Leopard could not
survive without the
grass it walks on… 3. Grass (Producer) to
(Consumer) Herbivore
(plant eater) to (Consumer) Leopard. THE PASSING OF ENERGY FROM
ONE
ORGANISM TO ANOTHER. 4. Nonliving factors
(Abiotic) are also
necessary for survival of organisms… 5. The part of the
Earth that supports life
is called the BIOSPHERE. 6. The Biosphere
includes all the LAND,
WATER, and AIR, where organisms live. 7. Organisms
respond to their environment
by either: 8. Most
organisms can survive a
temporary change. 9. Permanent
change can lead to
extinction. 10. 65 million years
ago the
Dinosaurs…Unknown 11. More than
1000 Species officially
listed as in danger of becoming extinct. Soon another 1000 to be
added. 12. It is estimated
that 500,000 Species may
vanish before the year 2,001. 13. What is causing
such a major impact on
so many life forms? 14. Main cause -
Human
Interference To meet the increasing demands of a growing
population: 15. Hunting has
reduced jaguars, tigers,
snow leopards, elephants, American Alligator, and rhinoceroses. 16. The American Bison
was almost wiped out,
60 million to 250 bison left by hunters in about 90 years. 17. Things can change
though if we take
proper action to protect Endangered Species… the bison is back to
several
thousand herds! 18. This is one of the
reasons to study
Biology to learn about the impact we have on our environment and other
organisms… We are not on the Earth alone. 19. A SPECIES
is a group of
organisms so similar to one another that they can INTERBREED.
(OR Organisms that CAN REPRODUCE). 20. The extinction of
any species can upset
the balance in an ECOSYSTEM, OR ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNITY
(home). 21. The value of
organisms cannot always be
predicted… the Pacific Yew Tree… almost extinct then found to contain a
chemical useful for treating cancer. 22. This is the main
concern about the
reduction of the rain forest, besides the fact of extinction of many
organisms
losing their home. 23. We are beginning
to reverse some of our
actions…protecting and bringing back species…American Alligator,
California
Condor. 24. So we must
understand that all our
action are part of the interaction among organisms and their
environment… 25. Without the
knowledge Biology brings, it
will be impossible to maintain the diversity of organisms in the
future. 26. To assure the
survival of humans, the
biosphere must be understood and sustain. 27. Poison our water,
air, and land?
Greenhouse effect, Global Warming… Ozone Level… All current
concerns on our Biosphere. MATTER, ENERGY,
AND ORGANIZATION 1. Living Things have
Highly Organized
Structures that must be maintained in their orderly state by a constant
SUPPLY
OF ENERGY. 2. How organisms
obtain, use, and transfer
Energy is a major topic of study in Biology. 3. ALMOST ALL THE
ENERGY FOR LIFE ON
EARTH COMES FROM THE SUN. 4. Through the process
of PHOTOSYNTHESIS,
plants and some types of Unicellular Organisms capture the energy from
the Sun
and change it into a form of energy that can be used by living things. 5. Organisms that
obtain their energy by
Making Their Own Food, like plants, are called AUTOTROPHS
(Producers). Using the Energy from the Sun, Autotrophs convert
Water and
Carbon Dioxide into Energy Rich substances such as Sugars and Starches (PHOTOSYNTHESIS).
6. Organisms that must
take in FOOD to meet
their Energy needs are called HETEROTROPHS
(Consumers).
Heterotrophs include all Animals and Fungi as well as many Unicellular
Organisms and a few Plant Species. 7. Because they CANNOT
PRODUCE THEIR
OWN FOOD HETEROTROPHS MUST CONSUME AUTOTROPHS or other
Heterotrophs, or
Both for their Energy Needs. BIOLOGY,
SOCIETY, and YOU, BIOLOGY
AFFECTS YOUR LIFE IN MANY WAYS: FOOD: The use of organisms to produce
things that
people need is called BIOTECHNOLOGY. CLOTHING: Wool, silk and leather come from animal
products. Polyester and nylon are made from petroleum. (Fossil
Fuels) SHELTER: Wood, but cutting down of the
forest is
endangering other animals, i.e.; Spotted Owl and the Kirkland's
Warbler. HEALTH: Medicine, treatment of water,
garbage
disposal, food handling. FUEL: Wood comes from plants, coal
from the
fossilized remains of plants, Petroleum products (oil and gasoline)
from
decaying remains of tiny organisms that lived millions of years
ago.
Fossil Fuels. THE WORLD OF BIOLOGY OBJECTIVES: List Six Characteristics of
Life.
Describe how a living thing is organized. Explain why all living
things
on Earth are not yet well understood. CHARACTERISTICS
OF LIFE All Living things
have a variety of
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS: 1. CELLS
- All organisms
are COMPOSED of CELLS. Unicellular or
Multicellular 2. ORGANIZATION
- Living
things are HIGHLY ORGANIZED at both the Molecular and
Cellular
Level. Living things exhibit a high level of organization, with
multicellular
organisms being subdivided into cells, and cells into Organelles, and
organelles into molecules, etc. 3. ENERGY USE
- All organisms USE
ENERGY for GROWTH AND REPAIR in a process called METABOLISM
which is the sum of all the Chemical Processes that occur in the
organism. THE
SUN IS THE SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR ALMOST ALL ORGANISMS. 4. HOMEOSTASIS
- All Living
Things maintain stable internal Conditions - HOMEOSTASIS.
All organisms RESPOND to the ENVIRONMENT.
Detection and
response to stimuli (both internal and external). Plants
respond to
Sunlight by growing towards it. 5. GROWTH
- All organisms GROW
and DEVELOP. Even single celled organisms grow. When first
formed by CELL
DIVISION - the formation of Two Cells from an Existing Cell,
they are
small, and must grow and develop into mature cells. Multicellular
organisms
pass through a more complicated process of Differentiation. A.
In Multicellular
Organisms, Cell Division and Cell Enlargement together result in GROWTH.
Growth is an Increase in Size. B.
The process by which
an Adult Organism arises is called DEVELOPMENT.
Development
is produced by repeated Cell Division and Cell Differentiation.
Development is a change in Shape or Form. 6. REPRODUCTION
- Organisms REPRODUCE.
Since all cells come from existing cells, they must have some way of
reproducing, whether that involves Asexual (no recombination of genetic
material, exact duplication of the parent) or sexual (recombination of
genetic
material, duplication with variation) by Sexual Reproduction.
REPRODUCTION IS NECESSARY FOR THE SURVIVAL OF A SPECIES. SOME
MUST
REPRODUCE. Most living things use the chemical DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) as the carrier of inheritance and the genetic
information. 7. ADAPTATION
- SPECIES of
organisms ADAPT to their ENVIRONMENTS through EVOLUTION.
This allows them to survive in a changing environment. Levels of
Organization Molecular Level
or Chemical Level:
atoms and molecules of which and organism is
made… DNA, encoded instructions for making many other molecules
necessary
for life. Cellular Level: The smallest unit of life capable
of carrying
out all the functions of living things. Tissue Level: A group of cells that performs a
specific
function in an organism. Organ Level: Several different types of tissue
(two or more
tissues) that function together for a specific purpose. Organ System
Level: Several
organs working together to perform a
specific function. Organism Level: The MOST Complex Level. ALL the Organ
Systems of
the body functioning with one another constitute the TOTAL ORGANISM -
ONE
LIVING INDIVIDUAL. Population Level: A group of organisms of the same
species that
live together in a particular location. Community Level: All the populations of different
species
living in a particular location. Ecosystem Level: All the communities of an area plus
the
nonliving factors of the environment. All the Ecosystems = the
Biosphere. SCIENTIFIC METHODS OBJECTIVES: Define and give examples of
Observing,
Measuring, Organizing and Analyzing Data, Inferring, and
Modeling.
Explain the relationship between Hypothesizing, Predicting, and
Experimenting. Explain why good communication is so important in
science. Describe the methods that scientists use in their work. 1. Science has some
unique features that
make it different from other fields of study. One of those
features is a
Sequence of Logical Steps to Generate New Ideas, Answer Questions, and
Draw
Conclusions. How scientist try to solve a problem or answer a
question. 2. The Characteristic
Steps in a scientific
inquiry are commonly called THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
The
Scientific Method involves:
A. OBSERVING OR
OBSERVATION OBSERVING 1. The process of
science Begins With making
Careful Observations. Sometime, making Observation requires
little more
than carefully looking at an objective. Scientist have many tools
to help
with observing, the Microscope and Medical Equipment are examples. ASKING A QUESTION 1. ALL SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATIONS BEGINS
WITH ONE OR MORE QUESTIONS. 2. The questions come
from the Observations
made. COLLECTING DATA 1. The LONGEST
PHASE of a scientific
investigation is Usually Data Collection. 2. DATA
include any and all
information that scientist gather to answer their questions. 3. There are FOUR
Important aspect
to collecting Data: OBSERVING, MEASURING, SAMPLING, AND
ORGANIZING DATA.
A. OBSERVING
- It is the observation of something unusual or unexplained that raises
the
first question. Observation typically employs one or more of the
FIVE
SENSES to perceive objects or events. Most observation in a
scientific
investigation are Direct.
B. MEASURING
- Many kinds of observations involve QUANTITATIVE DATA -
Data
that can be measured.
(1). Scientist may
measure the dimensions of an object, the number of objects in a group,
the
duration of an event, or other characteristics in precise units.
C. SCIENTIFIC
SAMPLING is the technique of using a Sample, that is, a Small
part, to
represent an Entire Population. To be useful, samples must by LARGE
AND RANDOM - they should include as many subject as possible,
and
scientist must be sure to Sample a Cross Section of the Population so
that an
accurate representation is obtained. D. ORGANIZING
DATA
- Data are of little use unless they are organized. Organizing
Data
involves placing Observations and Measurements in some kind of Logical
Order,
in a Graph, Chart, Table, or Map. HYPOTHESIZING 1. When scientist have
made Many
Observations and Collected Sufficient Data, they SUGGEST A POSSIBLE
EXPLANATION
for what they have seen and recorded. This Explanation, called a HYPOTHESIS,
IS A STATEMENT THAT BOTH EXPLAINS THEIR OBSERVATIONS AND DATA AND CAN
BE
TESTED. 2. A Statement
(Hypothesis) is Testable if
evidence can be collected that either Supports it or Disproves it. 3. A Hypothesis May Be
shown to be Wrong,
but it can NEVER be Proved TRUE beyond all Doubt. It Can only be
supported by Evidence. Scientist often must refine and revise
their
original Hypothesis - or even discard them - as they uncover New
Evidence. 4. To TEST
a Hypothesis,
scientist make a PREDICTION that logically follows from
the
Hypothesis. 5. A PREDICTION
is a Statement
made in advance that states the Results that will be obtained from
Testing a
Hypothesis, if the Hypothesis is TRUE. A Prediction most often
takes the
form of an "IF-THEN" Statement. EXPERIMENTING 1. An Hypothesis is
often Tested by carrying
out an EXPERIMENT. 2. EXPERIMENTING
IS THE PROCESS OF
TESTING A HYPOTHESIS OR PREDICTION BY GATHERING DATA UNDER CONTROLLED
CONDITIONS. 3. ALL Experiments
have Variables - a Factor
that can change in an experiment. Temperature, length of time,
size, and
chemical composition are possible variables. 4. A CONTROLLED
EXPERIMENT is
based on a Comparison of a Control Group with an Experimental
Group. The
Control Group and the Experimental Group are designed to BE
IDENTICAL
EXCEPT for ONE FACTOR. 5. The one factor
being Tested is called the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE OR EXPERIMENTAL
VARIABLE,
ALL OTHER
VARIABLES MUST BE CONTROLLED. 6. During the course
of a controlled
experiment, a scientist observes or measures another factor in both the
control
group and the experimental group. This factor is called the DEPENDENT
VARIABLE - dependent because it is driven by or results from
the
Independent Variable. 7. After the
experiment, the data collected
must be organized and analyzed to determine whether data are reliable
and
weather they support or do not support a Hypothesis or Prediction. DRAWING
CONCLUSIONS MODELING,
INFERRING, OR FORMING A THEORY 1. The GOAL of
Scientific Investigation is
to shed light on something previously Not Understood. 2. THE FINAL STEP
OF MOST
INVESTIGATIONS IS TO PRODUCE A MODEL. 3. Modeling involves
constructing a representation
of an object, a system, or a process that helps show relationships
among data. 4. A MODEL
IS ESSENTIALLY AN
EXPLANATION SUPPORTED BY DATA. It can be Visual, Verbal, or
Mathematical. 5. INFERRING
- An
Inference is a Conclusion Made on the basis of Facts or Premises rather
than on
direct observations. IF YOU SEE SMOKE, YOU WILL PROBABLY INFER
THAT ITS
SOURCE IS FIRE, EVEN IF YOU CAN'T SEE THE FIRE. An inference is
not
Directly Testable. 6. FORMING A
THEORY - A Theory
may formed after many related Hypotheses have been Tested and Supported
with
much experimental evidence. A Theory is a Broad and Comprehensive
Statement of what is THOUGHT TO BE TRUE. IMPLEMENTING
SCIENTIFIC METHODS 1. The final Step of
Scientific Method is to
Communicate Your Findings and to Share Your Results of Your Studies
with
others. Communication allows scientist to test and build on the
work of
others. 2. Two ways to
communicate your findings are
to publish your finding in scientific journals or present them at
scientific
meetings. MICROSCOPY AND
MEASUREMENT OBJECTIVES: Compare light microscopes with
electron
microscopes in terms of magnification and resolution. Explain the
advantage of the Systeme International d'Unities (SI Units). MICROSCOPES 1. One of the most
widely used tools in
Biology is the Microscope. A Microscope is an instrument that produces
an
Enlarged Image of an object. 2. Microscopes Both
Enlarge and image made
by an object and Show Its Details. 3. An increase in an
Object's apparent size
is MAGNIFICATION. 4. The Power to show
Details clearly refers
to RESOLUTION. TYPES OF
MICROSCOPE 1. To see Small
Organisms and Cells,
biologist use a COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE (LM).
With this
type of microscope the a thin sliced (enough to be transparent) and
sometimes
stained specimen is mounted on a glass slide to be viewed. A.
The slide is placed on
the STAGE, a Light source, a Light Bulb or Mirror in the BASE,
directs the light upward. B.
Light passes through
the Specimen and through the OBJECTIVE LENS, which is
positioned
directly above the specimen. C.
Most Light Microscope
have a set of Objective Lens located on the NOSEPIECE, that can
be
Rotated, that enlarges the image of the Specimen with different Powers
of
Magnification. D.
The most powerful
Objective Lens produce an image 40 Times (40X) the actual size of the
Specimen. E.
From the Objective
Lens, the magnified image is projected up through the BODY TUBE
to the OCULAR
LENS in the EYEPIECE, where it is magnified further. F.
The Standard Ocular
Lens magnifies a Specimen 10 Times (10X). G.
To Compute the Power
of Magnification of a Microscope, the Power of Magnification of the
Strongest
Objective Lens (40X) is MULTIPLIED by the Power of Magnification of the
Ocular
Lens (10X). 40 X 10 = 400X Power of Magnification. 2. The Resolution
power of LMs is limited by
the physical characteristics of light. At powers of magnification
beyond
about 2000X, the image of the specimen becomes blurry. 3. To examine
specimens even smaller than
Cells, scientist may choose from several types of ELECTRON
MICROSCOPES. 4. In an Electron
Microscope, a Beam of
Electrons - rather than Light - produces an enlarged image. 5. Electron
Microscopes are MUCH MORE
POWERFUL than LMs. 6. The TRANSMISSION
ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE (TEM) can magnify objects up to 200,000 Times.
Images
are projected onto a Screen or Photographic Plate. TEMs are used
to
produce a Greatly Magnified Image of INTERNAL DETAILS of
specimens. TEMs cannot be used to view Living Specimens. 7. The SCANNING
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM) provides Three Dimensional Images. Specimens are
NOT
Sliced, the surface is sprayed with a Fine Metal Coating. A beam
of
electrons is passed over the surface of the metal coating to emit a
shower of electrons.
These electrons are projected onto a Fluorescent Screen or Photographic
Plate. SEMs are used to produce Greatly Magnified Images of
SURFACE
DETAILS of specimens. SEMs can magnify up to 100,000
Times, but
cannot be used to view Living Specimens. MEASUREMENT 1. Scientist use a
Single, Standard System
of Measurement. The Official Name of the Measurement System is SYSTEME
INTERNATIONAL d'UNITES (INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS) OR SI.
The SI
is a Universal, Standardized form of measurement that is use by all
Scientist
around the world. It allows us to understand each others work and
duplicate each others experiments to check the results. 2. BASE UNITS:
There are SEVEN Fundamental Base Units in SI:
LENGTH - meter, m 3. DERIVED
UNITS: To
measure Surface Area or Velocity, among other things, Derived Units are
used. Derived Units are produced by mathematical relationship
between TWO
Base Units or Between TWO Derived Units. 4. Some Units of
measurement that are NOT
part of SI are accepted to use with SI Units - TIME, VOLUME, AND
MASS. |